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Rebecca M. Foerster, Elena Carbone, Hendrik Koesling, Werner X. Schneider; Saccadic eye movements in the dark while performing an automatized sequential high-speed sensorimotor task. Journal of Vision 2012;12(2):8. doi:
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People are unable to accurately report on their own eye movements most of the time. Can this be explained as a lack of attention to the objects we fixate? Here, we elicited eye-movement errors using the classic oculomotor capture paradigm, in which people tend to look at sudden onsets even when they are irrelevant. In the first experiment, participants were able to report their own errors on about a quarter of the trials on which they occurred. The aim of the second experiment was to assess what differentiates errors that are detected from those that are not. Specifically, we estimated the relative influence of two possible factors: how long the onset distractor was fixated (dwell time), and a measure of how much attention was allocated to the onset distractor. Longer dwell times were associated with awareness of the error, but the measure of attention was not. The effect of the distractor identity on target discrimination reaction time was similar whether or not the participant was aware they had fixated the distractor. The results suggest that both attentional and oculomotor capture can occur in the absence of awareness, and have important implications for our understanding of the relationship between attention, eye movements, and awareness.
The visual world is enriched with far more information than we can possibly process. To successfully interact with our environment, we must be able to select relevant information. Attention is what achieves this selection. In this study, we are specifically interested in spatial attention and its relationship to the execution of eye movements. Both eye movements and attention are involved in the process of selectively sampling information from the visual array for more detailed processing, to the exclusion of other information. The functional similarity between them has led to the intuitively appealing hypothesis that covert attention and eye movements exist on a continuum, with covert attention simply being a subthreshold eye movement (Klein, 1980; Rizzolatti, Riggio, Dascola, & Umiltá, 1987). Although a strong version of this hypothesis has not found wide support (e.g. Smith & Schenk, 2012), several studies have demonstrated that covert attention tends to be allocated to the location where an eye movement is about to be executed (e.g. Deubel & Schneider, 1996; Hoffman & Subramaniam, 1995; Kowler, Anderson, Dosher, & Blaser, 1995; Shepherd, Findlay, & Hockey, 1986). Based on these studies, it is widely believed that it is not possible to move the eyes without also moving attention.
Earlier research on eye-movement errors suggested people are unaware of these, even when they are quite large. Theeuwes, Kramer, Hahn, and Irwin (1998, 1999) investigated erroneous eye movements executed towards task-irrelevant sudden onsets. Participants were instructed to move their eyes to a single orange circle amongst red circle distractors. On half of the trials, an additional red circle appeared between the existing circles. Eye movements were directed to this sudden onset on 30% to 40% of trials, even though it was irrelevant to the task. The high prevalence of eye movements to the irrelevant onset, known as oculomotor capture, has been replicated many times (e.g. Belopolsky, Kramer, & Theeuwes, 2008; Born, Kerzel, & Theeuwes, 2011; Godijn & Theeuwes, 2002, 2003; Hunt, Olk, Mühlenen, & Kingstone, 2004; Hunt, Mühlenen, & Kingstone, 2007; Wu & Remington, 2003). At the end of their experiment, Theeuwes et al. (1998) informally asked participants if the sudden onset affected their eye-movement behaviour. Most participants reported being unaware of the abrupt onset, and no participants reported that their eye movements were affected or captured by it. Extending this further, Belopolsky et al. (2008) used a similar task, but after each trial, participants were asked if they looked directly at the target. People were able to report errors around two-thirds of the time. Although the results of these two studies are somewhat at odds (i.e. are participants unaware of all errors, or just some of them?) they do reinforce the conclusion that people have limited awareness of their own eye movements, even when they know that they will be asked to report on them, and even when these movements are large errors that negatively impact their performance.
Coming back to oculomotor capture, why are participants aware of their eye-movement errors on some trials but not others? At least two factors may be important. First, awareness could simply be a function of the dwell time on the distractor: that is, the longer the participant fixates the distractor, the more likely they are to notice/report having fixated it. Increased dwell time on an erroneously fixated stimulus was related to increases in error awareness in studies by both Mokler and Fischer (1999) and Belopolsky et al. (2008). However, in these studies the distributions of dwell times overlap, with many unreported errors having longer dwell times than reported errors. Moreover, it is not possible to determine the causal direction of this effect: were participants aware they were making an error because they fixated the distractor for longer? Or did participants fixate the distractor for longer because they were aware they were making an error?
The second potentially important determinant of eye-movement error awareness could be attention. It has previously been asserted that attention necessarily precedes all eye movements. If this is the case, attention should precede erroneous eye movements to the same extent as goal-directed eye movements. Whether or not the participant reports awareness of the error on a particular trial should have no relationship to the extent to which attention was allocated to the distractor (as measured by congruency effects). However, some studies have suggested eye movements can be executed in the absence of attention (e.g. Stelmach, Campsall, & Herdman, 1997; Van der Stigchel & De Vries, 2015). An error might go undetected on trials where the eyes, but not attention, went to the onset. In this case, awareness of an error may be related to the extent to which attention was allocated to the distractor.
Participants in the original oculomotor capture experiments (Theeuwes et al., 1998) were reported to have been unaware of their eyes persistently being misdirected towards irrelevant sudden onsets. This conclusion was based on subjective reports collected from simply asking participants during debriefing if they were aware of their errors during the experiment. Later, Belopolsky et al. (2008) conducted an oculomotor capture experiment in which they asked participants if they looked directly to the target after each trial and found they were in fact able to report errors on around two-thirds of trials, contradicting the original conclusion. However, capture rates were quite low (~16%) compared with the original study (~40%), so it is possible that a rarer capture event is more noticeable. In Experiment 1 of the current study, we therefore sought to clarify the extent to which participants are aware of the accuracy of their own eye movements in an oculomotor capture experiment.
Classification accuracy scores in Experiment 1. Although precision scores are relatively high, recall is low, indicating that many eye-movement errors were not detected. The data are separated by target-distractor distance. The box plots represent the median, first, and third quartiles
In this experiment we explored the contribution of both dwell time and a measure of attention to error awareness. If spatial attention and eye movements are dissociable, as some previous research has suggested (e.g. Hunt & Kingstone, 2003; Stelmach et al., 1997; Van der Stigchel & De Vries, 2015), errors may go unnoticed if the eyes, but not attention, are directed to the onset. To test the role of attention in error awareness, we used a paradigm similar to Experiment 1, but introduced a congruent/incongruent C to the target and distractor, as used in Theeuwes and Burger (1998). Participants were required to execute saccades directly to a target singleton and report the orientation of the C contained in the target. We expected participants to produce faster reaction times on trials with no onset distractor relative to trials with an onset distractor. On trials with a distractor, we expected participants to also respond slower when the C inside the distractor was incongruent with the target C relative to when they were congruent. As in the previous study, we should see longer dwell times when participants are aware of their errors than when they are unaware, but with a large degree of overlap. We examined the influence of both dwell time on the distractor and reaction time to the target on eye-movement error awareness, using distractor interference on reaction time as a measure of the extent to which attention was allocated to the distractor. Dwell time and attention may contribute independently to the likelihood of detecting an eye-movement error. Alternatively, their contributions may overlap (e.g. dwell time may increase both error awareness and congruency effects). 2b1af7f3a8